2HONGO

Particles

A comprehensive guide to Japanese particles (助詞). Particles are small words that attach to other words to define their grammatical role in a sentence. Mastering particles is essential for natural Japanese.

は (Topic Marker)

Topic of the Sentence

Marks the topic — the thing the sentence is about. Pronounced wa (not "ha") when used as a particle. The topic is often the subject, but not always.

  • 彼女は医者です。

    She is a doctor.

  • この映画は面白いです。

    This movie is interesting.

Contrast

Highlights a contrast between two items. When は appears on both sides, it implies "A does X, but B does Y."

  • 肉は食べますが、魚は食べません。

    I eat meat, but I don't eat fish.

  • 英語は話せますが、中国語は話せません。

    I can speak English, but I can't speak Chinese.

Negative Emphasis

In negative sentences, は can add subtle emphasis, implying "as for that particular thing, no" — while leaving open the possibility for others.

  • それは知りません。

    I don't know that (but I may know other things).

  • 日本には行ったことがありません。

    I have never been to Japan (but perhaps elsewhere).
が (Subject Marker)

Subject (Neutral Description)

Marks the grammatical subject, especially in neutral descriptions of events or states. Often used with intransitive verbs to describe what is happening.

  • 雨が降っています。

    It is raining.

  • 電話が鳴っています。

    The phone is ringing.

New Information

Introduces new or important information. When answering "who" or "which one" questions, が identifies the specific answer.

  • あの人が山田さんです。

    That person is Yamada-san.

  • これが私のペンです。

    This is my pen.

Object of Ability / Desire

Marks the object of ability (できる, potential forms) and desire (〜たい, 欲しい). In these constructions, the desired or achievable thing takes が rather than を.

  • 日本語が話せます。

    I can speak Japanese.

  • 水が飲みたいです。

    I want to drink water.

Conjunction (But)

Connects two clauses with a contrasting or unexpected relationship, similar to "but" or "although." This usage is more formal than けど.

  • 高いですが、買います。

    It's expensive, but I'll buy it.

  • 難しいですが、頑張ります。

    It's difficult, but I'll do my best.
を (Object Marker)

Direct Object

Marks the direct object of a transitive verb — the thing that receives the action. Pronounced o (not "wo") in modern speech.

  • 新聞を読みます。

    I read the newspaper.

  • 手紙を書きます。

    I write a letter.

Passage / Movement Through

Indicates the space through which movement occurs. Used with motion verbs like 渡る (cross), 飛ぶ (fly), 歩く (walk).

  • 橋を渡ります。

    I cross the bridge.

  • 空を飛びます。

    I fly through the sky.

Point of Departure

Marks the place or state one leaves or exits from. Used with verbs like 出る (leave), 降りる (get off), 卒業する (graduate).

  • 大学を卒業しました。

    I graduated from university.

  • 電車を降ります。

    I get off the train.
に (Target / Location / Time)

Destination / Goal

Indicates the destination or endpoint of movement. Emphasizes arrival at a specific point, unlike へ which focuses on the direction of travel.

  • 学校に着きました。

    I arrived at school.

  • 会社に行きます。

    I go to the office.

Specific Time

Marks a specific, measurable point in time (clock times, days of the week, dates). Not used with relative time words like 今日 or 明日.

  • 月曜日に会議があります。

    There is a meeting on Monday.

  • 朝六時に起きます。

    I wake up at 6 in the morning.

Location of Existence

Indicates where something or someone exists. Used with existence verbs ある (inanimate) and いる (animate).

  • 庭に花があります。

    There are flowers in the garden.

  • 教室に生徒がいます。

    There are students in the classroom.

Indirect Object / Recipient

Marks the person to whom an action is directed — the receiver, target, or beneficiary of an action.

  • 先生に質問しました。

    I asked the teacher a question.

  • 弟におもちゃを買ってあげた。

    I bought a toy for my younger brother.

Purpose

Indicates the purpose of going somewhere. The verb stem + に + motion verb pattern means "go/come in order to do."

  • 映画を見に行きます。

    I go to watch a movie.

  • 泳ぎに行きましょう。

    Let's go swimming.

Frequency / Rate

Expresses how often something occurs within a time period. The pattern is: time period + に + frequency.

  • 一週間に三回運動します。

    I exercise three times a week.

  • 一年に二回旅行します。

    I travel twice a year.

Agent in Passive

In passive constructions, に marks the agent — the person or thing that performs the action on the subject.

  • 先生に褒められました。

    I was praised by the teacher.

  • 雨に降られました。

    I got rained on.
へ (Direction)

Direction of Movement

Indicates the direction toward a destination. Pronounced e when used as a particle. More poetic and emphasizes the journey rather than the arrival point.

  • 北へ向かいます。

    I head north.

  • 東京へ出発します。

    I depart for Tokyo.

Toward (Abstract / Figurative)

Used figuratively to express direction toward abstract goals or concepts. Often combined with の to modify nouns (〜への).

  • 未来へ進む。

    Advance toward the future.

  • 成功への道。

    The road to success.
で (Context / Means)

Place of Action

Indicates where an active event takes place. Unlike に (which marks static existence), で marks the location of dynamic actions.

  • レストランで食事します。

    I eat at a restaurant.

  • 海で泳ぎます。

    I swim in the ocean.

Means / Method / Language

Indicates the tool, method, vehicle, or language used to perform an action.

  • 日本語で話してください。

    Please speak in Japanese.

  • タクシーで来ました。

    I came by taxi.

Material / Ingredient

Indicates the material or ingredient something is made from, especially when the original material is still recognizable.

  • 紙で飛行機を作りました。

    I made a paper airplane.

  • 小麦粉でパンを作ります。

    I make bread with flour.

Reason / Cause

Indicates the cause or reason for a situation, often for natural events, accidents, or circumstances beyond one's control.

  • 台風で学校が休みです。

    School is closed because of the typhoon.

  • 事故で電車が遅れています。

    The train is delayed because of an accident.

Scope / Range

Defines the scope or range within which something holds true. Often used with superlatives (一番).

  • 世界で一番高い山。

    The tallest mountain in the world.

  • この店で一番人気のメニュー。

    The most popular item on the menu at this shop.

Total Amount / Group

Indicates the total quantity, cost, or number of participants involved in an action.

  • 全部で三千円です。

    It's 3,000 yen in total.

  • 三人で行きました。

    Three of us went together.
の (Possessive / Modifier)

Possession / Belonging

Shows ownership or belonging, similar to "'s" or "of" in English. Connects two nouns where the first modifies or possesses the second.

  • 会社の社長

    The company president (lit. company's president)

  • 友達の家

    My friend's house

Noun Modifier (Material / Category)

Creates noun-modifying relationships beyond simple possession. Can indicate material, origin, category, or any attribute.

  • 木の机

    A wooden desk

  • 日本の文化

    Japanese culture

Apposition

Places two nouns in apposition, where the first noun describes the role or identity of the second.

  • 医者の田中さん

    Tanaka-san, the doctor

  • 友人の佐藤さん

    My friend Sato

Nominalizer

Turns a verb or clause into a noun phrase, allowing it to function as a subject or object. Similar to "-ing" as a gerund in English.

  • 泳ぐのが上手です。

    I am good at swimming.

  • 食べるのが好きです。

    I like eating.

Explanatory / Seeking Explanation

At the end of a sentence, の (often as のです / んです) adds an explanatory nuance — either giving a reason or asking for one.

  • 明日試験があるのです。

    (The reason is) I have an exam tomorrow.

  • どうしたの？

    What's wrong?
と (And / With / Quote / If)

Exhaustive Listing (And)

Connects nouns in a complete list — all items are mentioned. Unlike や, nothing is left out.

  • 本とノートとペンを買いました。

    I bought a book, a notebook, and a pen.

  • コーヒーと紅茶、どちらがいいですか。

    Coffee or tea — which would you like?

Accompaniment (With)

Indicates the person or group with whom an action is performed together.

  • 家族と旅行に行きます。

    I go on a trip with my family.

  • 先輩と食事をしました。

    I had a meal with my senior colleague.

Quotation

Marks quoted speech or reported thoughts. Follows the quoted content and precedes verbs like 言う (say), 思う (think), 聞く (hear).

  • 「ありがとう」と言いました。

    He said "Thank you."

  • 先生は明日休みだと言いました。

    The teacher said tomorrow is a day off.

Natural Conditional (When / If)

Describes an automatic or inevitable result. "When A happens, B always follows." Cannot be used for requests, suggestions, or one-time events.

  • 春になると桜が咲きます。

    When spring comes, the cherry blossoms bloom.

  • このボタンを押すとドアが開きます。

    When you press this button, the door opens.

Comparison (Same / Different)

Used with 同じ (same) and 違う (different) to mark what is being compared to.

  • 兄と同じです。

    It's the same as my older brother.

  • 去年と違います。

    It's different from last year.
も (Also / Even)

Also / Too

Replaces は, が, or を to indicate that the same statement applies to an additional item.

  • 私も行きたいです。

    I also want to go.

  • ここも静かです。

    This place is also quiet.

Both...and (Double も)

When も appears on two or more items, it means "both A and B" or "A as well as B."

  • 日本語も英語も話せます。

    I can speak both Japanese and English.

  • 父も母も元気です。

    Both my father and mother are well.

Even / Emphasis on Quantity

Emphasizes that something unexpected or remarkable is the case. With numbers, it expresses "as many as."

  • 子供も知っています。

    Even children know.

  • 百人も来ました。

    As many as 100 people came.

Negative Emphasis (Not...at all)

Combined with question words + negative verb to mean "not at all / none." どこにも (nowhere), 一度も (not even once).

  • どこにも行きたくない。

    I don't want to go anywhere.

  • 一度も会ったことがない。

    I have never met them even once.
か (Question / Or)

Question Marker

Placed at the end of a sentence to form a question. In polite speech, it replaces the need for rising intonation.

  • これは何ですか。

    What is this?

  • 明日来ますか。

    Are you coming tomorrow?

Or (Choice)

Placed between nouns to present alternatives, equivalent to "or" in English.

  • 紅茶かコーヒー、どちらにしますか。

    Tea or coffee — which would you like?

  • 肉か魚を選んでください。

    Please choose meat or fish.

Embedded Question

Marks an indirect question within a larger sentence. The question clause + か becomes a noun clause.

  • 何を買うか決めました。

    I decided what to buy.

  • 誰が来るか分かりません。

    I don't know who is coming.
や (Non-Exhaustive Listing)

Connects nouns in an incomplete list, implying there are more items not mentioned. Unlike と (which lists everything), や suggests "things like A and B." Often followed by など for clarity.

  • 犬や猫や鳥が好きです。

    I like dogs, cats, birds, and so on.

  • 東京や大阪や京都に行きました。

    I went to places like Tokyo, Osaka, and Kyoto.
から (From / Because)

Starting Point (From)

Marks the starting point in time or space. Often paired with まで (until/to) to define a range.

  • 東京から大阪まで新幹線で行きます。

    I go from Tokyo to Osaka by bullet train.

  • 朝から晩まで働きました。

    I worked from morning to evening.

Reason (Because / Since)

Connects two clauses to express cause and effect. More subjective and conversational than ので. The reason clause comes before から.

  • 寒いから、コートを着ます。

    I'll wear a coat because it's cold.

  • 時間がないから、タクシーで行きましょう。

    Let's take a taxi since we don't have time.

Made From (Origin Material)

Indicates the raw material something is made from, especially when the original material is no longer recognizable in the final product.

  • ワインはぶどうから作ります。

    Wine is made from grapes.

  • 紙は木から作られます。

    Paper is made from trees.
まで (Until / To)

Ending Point (Until / To)

Marks the ending point in time or space. Often paired with から (from) to express a range.

  • 家から学校まで歩いて十分です。

    It's a 10-minute walk from home to school.

  • 来週の金曜日まで待ってください。

    Please wait until next Friday.

Extent (To the Point of)

Emphasizes an extreme or unexpected degree of something, expressing "to the point of" or "even as far as."

  • 泣くまで笑いました。

    I laughed until I cried.

  • 死ぬまで忘れません。

    I will never forget until I die.
より (Than / From (Formal))

Comparison (Than)

Marks the standard of comparison in comparative sentences. The pattern is: A より B のほうが (B is more... than A).

  • 電車よりバスのほうが安いです。

    Buses are cheaper than trains.

  • 去年より今年のほうが暑いです。

    This year is hotter than last year.

From (Formal / Written)

A formal equivalent of から meaning "from." Common in written language, announcements, and business correspondence.

  • 午後二時より開始します。

    Starting from 2 PM.

  • こちらよりお知らせします。

    We would like to inform you from here.
でも (But / Even)

But / However

A sentence-initial conjunction meaning "but" or "however." More casual and emphatic than が. Starts a new sentence rather than connecting clauses.

  • 疲れています。でも、まだ頑張ります。

    I'm tired. But I'll keep trying.

  • 雨が降っています。でも、出かけます。

    It's raining. But I'm going out.

Even / Something Like

After nouns, でも means "even" or "something like" (a casual suggestion). After question words, it means "any" (whoever, whatever, etc.).

  • コーヒーでも飲みませんか。

    How about some coffee or something?

  • 日曜日でも仕事をします。

    I work even on Sundays.
けど / けれど (But / Although)

Contrast (But / Although)

Connects two clauses with a contrasting relationship. けど is casual; けれど and けれども are progressively more formal. Similar to が but more colloquial.

  • 日本語を勉強していますけど、まだ難しいです。

    I'm studying Japanese, but it's still difficult.

  • 安いけど、品質がいいです。

    It's cheap, but the quality is good.

Softener / Topic Introduction

Softens a statement or gently introduces a topic, request, or question. The trailing けど leaves the sentence open-ended, making it sound less direct.

  • すみませんけど、ちょっと聞いてもいいですか。

    Excuse me, but may I ask you something?

  • 明日の予定なんですけど...

    About tomorrow's plans...
のに (Despite / Even Though)

Expresses frustration or disappointment that the result was contrary to expectation. Stronger emotional tone than けど — often carries a sense of complaint or regret.

  • 約束したのに、来なかった。

    Even though we promised, they didn't come.

  • たくさん勉強したのに、テストに落ちた。

    Even though I studied a lot, I failed the test.
ので (Because (Objective))

Gives an objective, factual reason for something. Softer and more polite than から, making it preferred in formal situations. Presents the cause as a natural, observable fact.

  • 熱があるので、休みます。

    I'll take the day off because I have a fever.

  • 道が込んでいるので、遅れます。

    I'll be late because the road is congested.
し (Listing Reasons)

Lists multiple reasons, qualities, or factors to support a conclusion. Implies there may be additional reasons beyond those stated. Each reason ends with し.

  • 安いし、美味しいし、この店が好きです。

    It's cheap, it's delicious — I like this restaurant.

  • 天気もいいし、時間もあるし、散歩しましょう。

    The weather is nice, and we have time, so let's go for a walk.
ながら (While / Although)

Simultaneous Actions (While)

Indicates two actions happening at the same time by the same person. The verb stem + ながら describes the secondary action; the main verb follows.

  • 音楽を聞きながら勉強します。

    I study while listening to music.

  • 歩きながら電話をしないでください。

    Please don't use the phone while walking.

Despite / Although (Formal)

A more formal or literary way to express contradiction, meaning "despite" or "although." Often used in set phrases like 残念ながら (regrettably).

  • 知っていながら、教えてくれなかった。

    Despite knowing, they didn't tell me.

  • 残念ながら、お断りします。

    Regrettably, I must decline.
だけ (Only / Just)

Only / Just (Limitation)

Limits the quantity or scope to a specific amount. Neutral in tone — simply states a fact without negative connotation (unlike しか).

  • 一人だけ来ました。

    Only one person came.

  • 少しだけ食べました。

    I ate just a little.

As Much As (Full Extent)

Combined with potential or desired forms, だけ means "as much as" or "to whatever extent." Expresses doing something to the fullest.

  • 好きなだけ食べてください。

    Eat as much as you like.

  • できるだけ早く来てください。

    Come as early as possible.
しか (Only (+ Negative))

Always used with a negative verb to express "only" with a nuance of insufficiency or disappointment. Implies "nothing more than" — whereas だけ is neutral, しか suggests it's not enough.

  • 千円しかありません。

    I only have 1,000 yen.

  • 一人しか来なかった。

    Only one person came.
ばかり (Just / Nothing But)

Just Did (Recent Completion)

After the past tense (〜た), ばかり indicates that an action was just completed very recently.

  • 今来たばかりです。

    I just arrived.

  • 日本に着いたばかりです。

    I just got to Japan.

Nothing But / Always

After nouns or verb て-form, ばかり means "nothing but" or "always doing." Often carries a negative or critical nuance.

  • ゲームばかりしています。

    They do nothing but play games.

  • 甘いものばかり食べています。

    They eat nothing but sweets.
さえ (Even / If Only)

Even (Extreme Example)

Highlights an extreme or unexpected example to emphasize a point. "Even X" implies that if it's true for this extreme case, it's certainly true for normal cases.

  • 名前さえ知りません。

    I don't even know their name.

  • 子供さえ分かります。

    Even children can understand.

If Only (Minimum Condition)

With conditional forms (〜ば, 〜たら), さえ expresses the minimum sufficient condition: "if only X, then everything is fine."

  • お金さえあれば、買えます。

    If only I had money, I could buy it.

  • 天気さえよければ、行きます。

    If only the weather is good, I'll go.
ほど (Extent / Degree)

Extent (So Much That)

Expresses the degree or extent of something by giving a vivid comparison point. "To the extent that X."

  • 泣くほど嬉しかったです。

    I was so happy I could cry.

  • 死ぬほど疲れました。

    I was dead tired (lit. tired to the extent of dying).

The More...The More

In the pattern verb-ば + verb + ほど, expresses a proportional relationship: as one thing increases, so does another.

  • 練習すればするほど上手になります。

    The more you practice, the better you get.

  • 考えれば考えるほど分からなくなります。

    The more I think about it, the less I understand.

Not As...As (Negative Comparison)

With a negative predicate, ほど means "not as...as" — the subject doesn't reach the level of the comparison.

  • 東京ほど大きくないです。

    It's not as big as Tokyo.

  • 昨日ほど寒くないです。

    It's not as cold as yesterday.
くらい / ぐらい (About / Approximately)

Approximation (About / Around)

Indicates an approximate quantity, time, or amount. ぐらい is an alternative pronunciation with the same meaning.

  • 二十分くらい待ちました。

    I waited about 20 minutes.

  • 五百人くらい集まりました。

    About 500 people gathered.

Degree / Extent (To That Degree)

Expresses the degree of something by comparison, often implying it's minimal or trivial — "at least that much" or "to that degree."

  • 泣きたいくらい悲しいです。

    I'm so sad I could cry.

  • それくらい自分でやってください。

    At least do that much yourself.
こそ (Emphasis (Precisely))

Strong Emphasis (Precisely / Indeed)

Highlights the preceding word as the most important or true element. Conveys "it is precisely X" or "X above all else."

  • 今年こそ合格します。

    This year for sure I will pass.

  • これこそ本物です。

    This is the real thing.

Polite Deflection

Used in set phrases to politely return thanks, apologies, or greetings back to the other person. "No, it's I who should..."

  • こちらこそよろしくお願いします。

    It is I who should say nice to meet you.

  • いいえ、私こそすみません。

    No, I'm the one who should apologize.
よ (Assertion / Emphasis)

Assertion (Informing)

Sentence-final particle that conveys new information the listener doesn't know, or asserts something with confidence. Similar to adding "you know" or "I'm telling you."

  • 明日は雨ですよ。

    It will rain tomorrow, you know.

  • もう時間ですよ。

    It's time already!

Warning / Urging

Adds urgency to a warning or reminder, drawing the listener's attention to something they should be aware of.

  • 危ないですよ！

    It's dangerous!

  • 遅刻しますよ。

    You're going to be late!
ね (Confirmation / Agreement)

Seeking Confirmation

Sentence-final particle that seeks the listener's agreement or confirmation. Similar to "right?", "isn't it?", or "don't you think?"

  • いい天気ですね。

    Nice weather, isn't it?

  • この料理は美味しいですね。

    This dish is delicious, don't you think?

Soft Agreement / Promise

Expresses agreement, acknowledgment, or makes a soft promise. Softens the tone of the sentence.

  • そうですね。

    That's right.

  • 明日、会いましょうね。

    Let's meet tomorrow, okay?